Jawless Fishes and Bony Fishes (Classes Myxini and Petromyzontida and Class Actinopterygii)
Peter McMillan and Taoho Patuawa
General description
Jawless fishes including the hagfishes and lampreys are a very small group of fishes comprising two families (Myxinidae and Geotriidae). They have a cartilage skeleton (no bone), lack vertebral centra and paired fins, and have a series of pores for gas exchange on the side of the body (no gill slits). Jaws are absent and the mouth is adapted for sucking (hagfishes) and sucking and rasping (lampreys). They are small to moderate sized with elongate (eel-like) bodies. The hagfishes are found from coastal to deepwater and appear to feed on dead and decaying organisms. There are three species of hagfishes, two of which are endemic to New Zealand waters. The adult lamprey is marine, where it feeds as a parasite of fishes and marine mammals, but it moves into fresh water to spawn. The early life history is also in fresh water. The single lamprey species, Geotria australis, is widespread in the southern hemisphere, but is absent from southern Africa. The common hagfish, Eptatretus cirrhatus, and the lamprey were food sources for Maori.
Bony fishes are the largest group of marine fishes and include most of the fishes exploited by humans (eg, hoki, Macruronus novaezelandiae, and tarakihi, Nemadactylus macropterus). They have a bony skeleton, generally including bony fins, jaws (often with teeth), operculum or gill plate, and often have scales on the skin. Bony fishes are adapted for many forms of life. Some are adapted for bottom living in shallow coastal waters (eg, flatfishes such as the sand flounder, Rhombosolea plebeia). Others are adapted to life on the deep sea floor at thousands of metres, such as the cosmopolitan rattail Coryphaenoides armatus. Others are adapted to the near surface (pelagic) environment in coastal waters (such as the anchovy, Engraulis australis) or offshore (such as the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii). Others are specialised for midwater in shallow coastal waters, such as the barracouta, Thyrsites atun, or the deep sea such as the lanternfish Lampanyctodes hectoris. They display a wide range of behaviour with some species undergoing extensive spawning migrations along the coast such as the blue moki, Latridopsis ciliaris, or offshore such as the orange roughy, Hoplostethus atlanticus, while others live and spawn within a few square metres of reef, such as the variable triplefin, Forsterygion varium. Large pelagic fishes, such as the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii, and the striped marlin, Tetrapturus audax, migrate internationally across ocean basins. Fishes have a range of diets, from herbivores, such as the butterfish, Odax pullus, to large carnivores, such as the blue marlin, Makaira mazara. Fishes also have a wide range of life-history strategies, from high-fecundity species, such as the hake, Merluccius australis, to species that produce few eggs, such as the seahorse, Hippocampus abdominalis. They have a wide range of longevity, from short-lived species, such as the greenback flounder, Rhombosolea tapirina, which reaches a maximum of about six years, to long-lived species such as the black oreo, Allocyttus niger, which reaches a maximum of about 150 years.
The following section was adapted from King et al. in Gordon (in press) and the table was adapted from Roberts et al. in Gordon (in press). Only marine species are included. All living New Zealand bony fishes belong to the Division Teleostei, or modern bony fishes. Teleosts are the most species-rich and diversified group of all the vertebrates, with about 25,000 species worldwide (about 96% of all extant fishes), belonging to 38 orders, 426 families, and over 4000 genera (Nelson 2006). In New Zealand, marine teleosts include about 1007 species belonging to 25 orders, and 177 families. The Perciformes is by far the most diverse order in New Zealand, with 65 families and about 335 species (91 endemic); second is the Gadiformes with 10 families, 99 species (13 endemic), third and fourth respectively are the pelagic orders Myctophiformes (2 families, 99 species, 0 endemic) and Stomiiformes (4 families, 85 species, 0 endemic), followed by Aulopiformes (11 families, 57 species, 4 endemic), Anguilliformes (9 families, 51 species, 1 endemic), Scorpaeniformes (8 families, 43 species, 9 endemic), Osmeriformes (6 families, 35 species, 0 endemic), and Lophiiformes (10 families, 34 species, 2 endemic). The most speciose teleost families are the pelagic lanternfishes (Myctophidae, 97 species, 0 endemic), benthic and benthopelagic rattails or grenadiers (Macrouridae, 65 species, 12 endemic), and pelagic dragonfishes (Stomiidae, 45 species, 0 endemic). Families that give the New Zealand fish fauna its unique and most distinctive character include the coastal triplefins (Tripterygiidae, 27 species, 26 endemic), clingfishes (Gobiesocidae, 13 species, 12 endemic), and righteyed flounders (Pleuronectidae, 11 species, 10 endemic).
Status
Most species are not considered to be threatened, but one species (mottled brotula, Bidenichthys consobrinus) is listed as sparse, 32 species are range restricted, and eight species are data deficient (Hitchmough, 2002).
Key locations
The greatest diversity of bony fishes in New Zealand waters occurs along the northern flank of the Chatham Rise, but for the familiar inshore species associated with rocky reefs the greatest diversity is to be found in northeastern New Zealand. Most of the species are found in coastal waters out to the edge of the continental shelf at about 200 m.
Many species have wide depth and geographical distributions within New Zealand waters. Ling, Genypterus blacodes, for example, occurs throughout the region, but other species are more restricted (eg, Sandager's wrasse, Coris sandageri) is only known from the Kermadecs to East Cape (Francis 2001)). Some species, including those listed in the Status section above as range restricted, generally have a very limited distribution. For example, the Kermadec triplefin, Enneapterygius kermadecensis) is only known from the Kermadec Islands (Francis 2001).
Summary of threats
The activities of humans including fishing and aquaculture (overexploiting, ecological change caused by extracting key species, sea-floor damage from trawling and dredging, nutrient enrichment, etc), sedimentation of coastal areas from land use, pollution, and sea temperature change from global warming, pose a range of threats to a variety of species. The species most at risk are probably those with a restricted geographical distribution and low productivity.
Typical habitats
Marine fishes occupy a wide range of habitats from shallow surface waters to the deepest trenches.
State of information
Depth and geographical distribution information is available for many species from the data associated with museum collections. Fisheries resource surveys also supply distribution information for a more limited range of species. Distribution data from more remote locations is relatively poor, for example, for all islands in the Kermadec and Chatham island groups. Some coastal habitats around New Zealand, including offshore habitats (eg, west coast of the North Island), have only been sampled infrequently. Abundance information to assess population size is relatively poor and is generally restricted to a subgroup of species subjected to regular harvest by humans. The annual fisheries resource assessment document published by the Ministry of Fisheries includes 56 stocks of marine bony fishes (Sullivan et al. 2005). Most stocks are single species, but some include more than one species. Only some of these assessments are updated annually using new abundance data.
Significance for Maori
When Maori first arrived in Aotearoa, marine bony fishes were in plentiful supply and many traditional species can still be caught in good numbers today. Of the vast number of different species available to early Maori, some of the more significant included coastal species such as kourea (snapper), patiki (flounder), kanae (grey mullet), pakirikiri or rawaru (blue cod), tarakihi, maomao and kahawai, as well as deeper-water species such as hapuka, hoki and warehou. Apart from the patiki, these species were commonly found in large schools in estuaries, the open coast or further out to sea. Thus, traditional Maori fishermen were able to launch fishing expeditions in large waka, targeting individual schools of fish with huge nets and bring home plentiful supplies for the hapu (sub-tribe). Some of the fish from these large expeditions would be cooked and eaten fresh, however the vast majority would either be dried or smoked, then stored in pataka (storage houses) for the winter months.
Patiki were caught using drag nets which would be walked into the calm, shallow waters of estuaries or into the surf zone of beaches, stretched out parallel with the shoreline and dragged straight back to shore. Sinkers made from stones would be attached to the bottom line of the net to ensure the net remained on the bottom during the drag. Patiki were also caught using spears and a torch to spot them at night time, as this was the best time to catch patiki.
Some species of fish were also significant in other ways. Pakirikiri, or rawaru, were used by some hapu as environmental indicators. When this fish was caught, the Maori people would gut the fish and check the contents of the stomach. Stones were sometimes found in the stomach and it was believed that these stones were swallowed by the fish to provide ballast during rough seas and bad weather. Thus, if stones were found in the stomach this was used as a sign that bad weather was on its way.
Key references
Anderson, O F, Bagley, N W, Hurst R J, Francis, M P, Clark, M R and P J McMillan. 1998. Atlas of New Zealand fish and squid distributions from research bottom trawls. NIWA technical report 42. 303pp.
Best, E. 1929. Fishing Methods and Devices of the Maori. Reprinted by Te Papa Press 2005. 264pp.
Francis, M P. 2001. Coastal Fishes of New Zealand. An identification guide. 3rd ed. Reed Publishing (NZ) Ltd. Auckland, New Zealand. 103pp.
Hitchmough, R. (Comp.). 2002. New Zealand threat classification system lists. Threatened species occasional publication 23: 1-210.
King, (in press). In: Gordon, D P (ed), The New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume 1. Kingdom Animalia. Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, and Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch.
Nelson, J S. 2006. Fishes of the World. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, USA.
Paul, L. 2000. New Zealand Fishes: Identification, natural history and fisheries. Reed Books, Auckland, New Zealand. 253pp.
Roberts, C D, Paulin, C D, Stewart, A L, McDowall, R M and R P McPhee (In press). Class Actinopterygii - bony fishes. In: Gordon, D.P. (ed), The New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume 1, Kingdom Animalia: Radiata, Lophotrochozoa, and Deuterostomia. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch.
Strickland, R R. 1990. Nga tini a Tangaroa: A Maori-English, English-Maori dictionary of fish names. MAF Fisheries. 65pp.
Sullivan, K J, Mace, P M, Smith, N W McL, Griffiths, M H, Todd, P R, Livingston, M E, Harley, S J, Key, J M, and A M Connell. (Comps.) 2005: Report from the Fishery Assessment Plenary, May 2005: stock assessments and yield estimates. 792pp. (Unpublished report held in NIWA library, Wellington.)
Table 14: Living Marine Jawless and Bony Fishes in New Zealand. Compiled from Roberts et al. in Gordon (In press).
| Class | Order | Family | Endemic species | Total species |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Myxini | Myxiniformes | Myxinidae | 2 | 2 |
| 2 | 2 | |||
| Petromyzontida | Petromyzontiformes | Geotriidae | 1 | |
| 0 | 1 | |||
| Actinopterygii | Albuliformes | Halosauridae | 3 | |
| (Division Teleostei) | Notacanthidae | 6 | ||
| Anguilliformes | Chlopsidae | 1 | ||
| Congridae | 12 | |||
| Derichthyidae | 3 | |||
| Muraenidae | 9 | |||
| Nemichthyidae | 5 | |||
| Nettastomatidae | 4 | |||
| Ophichthidae | 1 | 7 | ||
| Serrivomeridae | 2 | |||
| Synaphobranchidae | 8 | |||
| Saccopharyngiformes | Cyematidae | 1 | ||
| Eurypharyngidae | 1 | |||
| Clupeiformes | Clupeidae | 2 | 3 | |
| Engraulidae | 1 | |||
| Gonorynchiformes | Gonorynchidae | 2 | ||
| Osmeriformes | Alepocephalidae | 14 | ||
| Argentinidae | 1 | |||
| Bathylagidae | 7 | |||
| Microstomatidae | 4 | |||
| Opisthoproctidae | 5 | |||
| Platytroctidae | 4 | |||
| Stomiiformes | Gonostomatidae | 12 | ||
| Photichthyidae | 9 | |||
| Sternoptychidae | 19 | |||
| Stomiidae | 45 | |||
| Aulopiformes | Alepisauridae | 2 | ||
| Anotopteridae | 1 | |||
| Aulopodidae | 2 | 2 | ||
| Paraulopidae | 1 | 6 | ||
| Evermanellidae | 5 | |||
| Ipnopidae | 1 | 5 | ||
| Notosudidae | 7 | |||
| Omosudidae | 1 | |||
| Paralepididae | 16 | |||
| Scopelarchidae | 7 | |||
| Synodontidae | 5 | |||
| Myctophiformes | Myctophidae | 97 | ||
| Neoscopelidae | 2 | |||
| Lampridiformes | Lamprididae | 2 | ||
| Lophotidae | 1 | |||
| Regalecidae | 2 | |||
| Trachipteridae | 4 | |||
| Veliferidae | 1 | |||
| Polymixiformes | Polymixiidae | 1 | ||
| Ophidiiformes | Aphyonidae | 2 | ||
| Bythitidae | 4 | 9 | ||
| Carapidae | 3 | 8 | ||
| Ophidiidae | 6 | |||
| Gadiformes | Bregmacerotidae | 1 | ||
| Euclichthyidae | 1 | |||
| Gadidae | 1 | |||
| Macrouridae | 12 | 65 | ||
| Macruronidae | 3 | |||
| Melanonidae | 2 | |||
| Merlucciidae | 1 | |||
| Moridae | 1 | 23 | ||
| Muraenolepididae | 1 | |||
| Phycidae | 1 | |||
| Lophiiformes | Antennariidae | 4 | ||
| Caulophrynidae | 1 | |||
| Ceratiidae | 3 | |||
| Chaunacidae | 3 | |||
| Gigantactinidae | 5 | |||
| Himantolophidae | 3 | |||
| Linophrynidae | 1 | |||
| Melanocetidae | 1 | |||
| Ogcocephalidae | 1 | 4 | ||
| Oneirodidae | 1 | 9 | ||
| Mugiliformes | Mugilidae | 2 | ||
| Atheriniformes | Atherinidae | 1 | ||
| Beloniformes | Belonidae | 2 | ||
| Exocoetidae | 7 | |||
| Hemiramphidae | 1 | 2 | ||
| Scomberesocidae | 1 | |||
| Stephanoberyciformes | Barbourisiidae | 1 | ||
| Cetomimidae | 2 | |||
| Melamphaidae | 10 | |||
| Rondeletiidae | 1 | |||
| Beryciformes | Anoplogastridae | 1 | ||
| Berycidae | 3 | |||
| Diretmidae | 2 | |||
| Holocentridae | 2 | |||
| Monocentrididae | 1 | |||
| Trachichthyidae | 3 | 6 | ||
| Zeiformes | Grammicolepididae | 1 | ||
| Macrurocyttidae | 1 | |||
| Oreosomatidae | 6 | |||
| Zeidae | 1 | 6 | ||
| Gasterosteiformes | Aulostomidae | 1 | ||
| Fistulariidae | 1 | |||
| Macroramphosidae | 4 | |||
| Syngnathidae | 4 | 7 | ||
| Scorpaeniformes | Congiopodidae | 3 | 3 | |
| Cottidae | 3 | 3 | ||
| Dactylopteridae | 1 | |||
| Hoplichthyidae | 2 | |||
| Liparidae | 2 | 5 | ||
| Psychrolutidae | 5 | 7 | ||
| Scorpaenidae | 2 | 16 | ||
| Triglidae | 4 | 6 | ||
| Perciformes | Acanthuridae | 3 | ||
| Aplodactylidae | 2 | |||
| Apogonidae | 2 | |||
| Ariommatidae | 1 | |||
| Arripidae | 2 | |||
| Blenniidae | 7 | |||
| Bovichthyidae | 3 | 3 | ||
| Bramidae | 7 | |||
| Callanthiidae | 2 | |||
| Callionymidae | 1 | 3 | ||
| Carangidae | 1 | 12 | ||
| Caristiidae | 2 | |||
| Centrolophidae | 12 | |||
| Cepolidae | 1 | 1 | ||
| Chaetodontidae | 4 | |||
| Champsodontidae | 1 | |||
| Cheilodactylidae | 8 | |||
| Chiasmodontidae | 8 | |||
| Chironemidae | 3 | |||
| Cirrhitidae | 4 | |||
| Clinidae | 2 | 3 | ||
| Coryphaenidae | 1 | |||
| Creediidae | 3 | 4 | ||
| Echeneididae | 6 | |||
| Eleotridae | 2 | 2 | ||
| Emmelichthyidae | 2 | |||
| Ephippidae | 1 | |||
| Epigonidae | 4 | |||
| Gempylidae | 10 | |||
| Gobiesocidae | 12 | 13 | ||
| Gobiidae | 3 | 6 | ||
| Howellidae | 3 | |||
| Kuhliidae | 1 | |||
| Kyphosidae | 1 | 12 | ||
| Labridae | 3 | 26 | ||
| Latrididae | 1 | 4 | ||
| Leptoscopidae | 3 | 3 | ||
| Lutjanidae | 5 | |||
| Luvaridae | 1 | |||
| Malacanthidae | 1 | |||
| Mullidae | 4 | |||
| Nomeidae | 4 | |||
| Nototheniidae | 1 | 4 | ||
| Odacidae | 2 | 2 | ||
| Pempheridae | 1 | 2 | ||
| Pentacerotidae | 5 | |||
| Percophidae | 6 | 8 | ||
| Pinguipedidae | 2 | 3 | ||
| Plesiopida | 5 | 5 | ||
| Polyprionidae | 2 | |||
| Pomacanthidae | 1 | |||
| Pomacentridae | 1 | 12 | ||
| Scaridae | 2 | |||
| Scombridae | 12 | |||
| Scombrolabracidae | 1 | |||
| Serranidae | 6 | 19 | ||
| Sparidae | 1 | |||
| Sphyraenidae | 1 | |||
| Tetragonuridae | 1 | |||
| Trichiuridae | 5 | |||
| Tripterygiidae | 26 | 28 | ||
| Uranoscopidae | 2 | 5 | ||
| Xiphiidae | 6 | |||
| Zanclidae | 1 | |||
| Zoarcidae | 3 | 6 | ||
| Pleuronectiformes | Achiropsettidae | 4 | ||
| Bothidae | 2 | 4 | ||
| Pleuronectidae | 10 | 11 | ||
| Soleidae | 1 | |||
| Tetraodontiformes | Balistidae | 1 | ||
| Diodontidae | 2 | |||
| Molidae | 3 | |||
| Monacanthidae | 5 | |||
| Ostraciidae | 1 | 4 | ||
| Tetraodontidae | 9 | |||
| Triacanthodidae | 1 | |||
| 161 | 1007 | |||
| Total | 163 | 1010 |
Figure 38: Albacore Thunnus alalunga annual distribution.
Figure 39: Ling Genypterus blacodes annual distribution.
Figure 40: Hoki Macruronus novaezelandiae annual distribution.
Figure 41: Tarakihi Nemadactylus macropterus annual distribution.
Figure 42: Orange roughy Hoplosthethus atlanticus annual distribution.