Fulmars, Petrels, Prions, and Shearwaters (Families Procellariidae, Hydrobatidae, and Pelecanoididae)
Fairy prion, Mangare Island, Chatham Islands, November 1982. Photographer Dave Crouchley. Crown Copyright, Department of Conservation.
David Thompson, Mike Imber, and Taoho Patuawa
General Description
Petrels, prions and shearwaters are a collection of species from three families of the order Procellariiformes: the Procellariidae, fulmarine, gadfly and other petrels, prions and shearwaters; the Hydrobatidae, storm petrels; and the Pelecanoididae, diving petrels. There is a great diversity in size within the family Procellariidae, with the smallest prions measuring 23 cm in length and the giant petrels, Macronectes spp., measuring up to 65 cm, larger than some species of albatross. Members of the families Hydrobatidae and Pelecanoididae are much smaller in relative size, the storm petrels being the smallest of seabirds. As members of the order Procellariiformes, many are characterised by strong olfactory senses and can use chemical detection to forage and for homing.
The different families of petrels have several distinguishing physiological characteristics. For example, the Hydrobatidae and some Procellariidae have the ability to discharge oil from the mouth and nostrils when they are threatened or disturbed as a defence mechanism. Members of the Hydrobatidae rarely dive; they obtain their food by picking from the surface or swimming on the water surface. The Pelecanoididae, however, actively pursue their prey underwater using their paddle-like wings, as can most of the shearwaters. Petrels' diets consist of fish, squid, crustaceans, other animal matter, and carrion. Some petrels have been known to scavenge other birds, and giant petrels kill smaller birds and even penguins.
Petrels tend to be pelagic, spending much of the time at sea and coming to land only to breed. Each family tends to be colonial in its breeding habits and nests in burrows, rock crevices or in a shallow scrape (larger fulmars).
In general, petrels have a 20-plus-year life-expectancy (potentially to 50+ years), diving petrels being the exception with a shorter lifespan. They lay one egg per breeding season that is incubated and cared for by both parents. If the egg is damaged or lost then it is not replaced. The incubation period lasts 40-75 days and rearing of the chick takes 50-280 days. The majority of petrel species do not begin breeding until 3-6 years of age. Diving petrels begin earlier at 1-2 years due to their shorter lifespan.
Of the 80 world species of the family Procellariidae, there are 28 species that breed in New Zealand and another 11 species are visitors to the region. Of the Hydrobatidae, 5 of the 22 species in the world breed in New Zealand, while an additional 2 species are visitors. For the diving petrels, the Pelecanoididae, 2 of the 4 species in the world breed in the New Zealand region. This diversity of petrels, prions and shearwaters represents about 49% of the global diversity of the family Procellariidae, 35% breeding in the region, and 14% breeding exclusively in the region. Of the storm petrels, Hydrobatidae, 32% of the global species occur within the region, 23% forming breeding colonies in the New Zealand region.
Taxonomically, the breeding Procellariidae fauna of New Zealand are represented by six genera, with the most speciose being Pterodroma (eleven species), Puffinus (seven species), and Pachyptila (four species). The Hydrobatidae breeding in New Zealand are represented by four genera (Oceanites, Pelagodroma, Fregetta and Garrodia) and the Pelecanoididae is represented by a single genus, Pelecanoides.
Status
Of the 11 species of Procellariidae that breed only within New Zealand, the Chatham Island taiko, Pterodroma magentae, and Chatham petrel, P. axillaris, are classified by IUCN as "critically endangered". Cook's petrel, P. cookii, and Hutton's shearwater, Puffinus huttoni, are classified as "endangered". A further five species are considered "vulnerable" according to the IUCN classification system. The recently rediscovered New Zealand storm petrel, Oceanites Maorianus, is classified as "critically endangered" and awaits confirmation of its breeding site(s), in common with the Kermadec storm petrel, Pelagodroma marina albiclunis, an endemic subspecies nesting on the Kermadec Islands.
Key Locations
Key locations for most of the petrel species within New Zealand are largely restricted to offshore and predator-free islands, in particular, the Kermadec Islands, the Three Kings Islands, islands in the Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty, the Chatham Islands, Stewart Island, and the subantarctic islands. The Hutton's shearwater breeds in the Seaward Kaikoura Range, the Westland petrel, Procellaria westlandica, in the coastal hills south of Punakaiki, and the mottled petrel, Pterodroma inexpectata, on islets in Fiordland and islands further south.
Summary of Threats
By far the major threats are from introduced predators and through habitat loss. Petrels and shearwaters have been caught as bycatch by trawl fisheries and longline fishing for tuna and ling. Some species such as prions are attracted to brightly lit ships; birds may fly into the superstructure and be injured or killed.
Typical Habitats
Breeding generally occurs at offshore islands in a relatively unmodified state. Foraging tends to occur over areas of the continental shelf, although some species have been recorded in areas of the Tasman Sea or migrating across the Pacific.
State of Information
The information on petrels and shearwaters is generally good, however there are a number of species that are considered "data deficient" in terms of the knowledge of their breeding, population dynamics, diet, and movement patterns. The survivorship of adults in breeding colonies and at sea is a concern for some threatened species, particularly where introduced predators or interactions with fishing gear are affecting the total population size. Information pertaining to these aspects may help in the conservation of these species.
Significance for Maori
Cultural harvesting still occurs, with iwi traditionally harvesting some species of seabirds. Iwi with manawhenua traditionally harvest oi (grey-faced petrels, Pterodroma macroptera gouldi) from sites off the North Island. Harvesting is conducted under a permit system and the take is considered small.
Titi (sooty shearwaters, Puffinus griseus) are commercially harvested in the Stewart Island (Rakiura) area by iwi with hereditary rights. Up to 300,000 young birds may be taken annually. Some mottled petrels may be taken at the same time.
Key References
Heather, B and Robertson, H. 1996. The field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Penguin books, Auckland.
Marchant, S and Higgins, P J. 1991. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds. Vol. 1: Part B. Ratites to Ducks. Oxford University Press. 1408pp.
Taylor, G A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A. Threatened Seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. 233pp.
Taylor, G A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part B. Non-threatened Species. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 17. Department of Conservation, Wellington New Zealand. 435pp.
Table 3: Fulmars, Petrels, Prions, and Shearwaters (Families Procellariidae, Hydrobatidae, and Pelecanoididae) in New Zealand
| Taxon | Common name | Breeding Species | Endemic Species |
|---|---|---|---|
| Family Procellariidae | |||
| Procellaria aequinoctialis | White-chinned petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Procellaria cinerea | Grey petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Procellaria parkinsoni | Black petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Procellaria westlandica | Westland petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma axillaris | Chatham petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma cervicalis | White-naped petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pterodroma cookii | Cook's petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma inexpectata | Mottled petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma lessonii | White-headed petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pterodroma macroptera gouldi | Grey-faced petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma magentae | Chatham Island taiko | 1 | 1 |
| Pterodroma mollis | Soft-plumaged petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pterodroma neglecta | Kermadec petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pterodroma nigripennis | Black-winged petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pterodroma pycrofti | Pycroft's petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Puffinus assimilis | Little shearwater | 1 | 1 |
| Puffinus bulleri | Buller's shearwater | 1 | 1 |
| Puffinus carneipes | Flesh-footed shearwater | 1 | 0 |
| Puffinus gavia | Fluttering shearwater | 1 | 1 |
| Puffinus griseus | Sooty shearwater | 1 | 0 |
| Puffinus huttoni | Hutton's shearwater | 1 | 1 |
| Puffinus pacificus | Wedge-tailed shearwater | 1 | 0 |
| Daption capense | Cape petrel | 1 | 1 |
| Macronectes halli | Northern giant petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pachyptila crassirostris | Fulmar prion | 1 | 0 |
| Pachyptila desolata | Antarctic prion | 1 | 0 |
| Pachyptila turtur | Fairy Prion | 1 | 0 |
| Pachyptila vittata | Broad-billed prion | 1 | 0 |
| 28 | 13 | ||
| Family Hydropatidae | |||
| Oceanites Maorianus | New Zealand storm-petrel | 1? | 1? |
| Pelagodroma marina | White-faced storm petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Fregetta grallaria | White-bellied storm petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Fregetta tropica | Black-bellied storm petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Garrodia nereis | Grey-backed storm petrel | 1 | 0 |
| 5 | 1? | ||
| Family Pelecanoididae | |||
| Pelecanoides georgicus | South Georgian diving petrel | 1 | 0 |
| Pelecanoides urinatrix | Common diving petrel | 1 | 0 |
| 2 | 0 | ||
| Total | 35 | 14 |
Figure 12: Chatham taiko Pterodroma magentae breeding.
Figure 13: Grey petrel Procellaria cinerea breeding.
Figure 14: Westland petrel Procellaria westlandica annual distribution.
Figure 15: Grey petrel Procellaria cinerea annual distribution.
Figure 16: Cook's petrel Pterodroma cookii breeding.
Figure 17: Hutton's shearwater Puffinus huttoni annual distribution.