Albatrosses (Family Diomedeidae)
David Thompson, Chris Robertson, and Taoho Patuawa
General Description
Albatrosses, members of the family Diomedeidae, represent a small group of large tube-nosed petrels, with 21 recognised species. They include the largest seabirds, with wingspans measuring over 3 m and have powerful beaks for capturing prey at the sea surface. They are adapted for foraging for long periods over the open ocean and are estimated to spend over 80% of their lives at sea, where they are capable of travelling long distances at high speed, reaching burst velocities of 130-140 km/h. They can cover up to 1800 km in a day during migration.
Some albatrosses range widely over pelagic ocean, while others forage for food comparatively close to land over areas of continental shelf. Albatross are primarily surface feeders, with some shallow plunging. Their diet is known to include squid, krill, and fish, with some crustaceans and salps, although the diet of most species has been poorly researched.
Albatrosses are among the longest-lived birds, with age of first breeding being reached after approximately 6-15 years. Pair bonds are usually monogamous and lifelong, with divorce rarely recorded. Albatross species lay one egg during each breeding season. During the incubation period both male and female take turns incubating the egg for 70-85 days. Fledging can take up to a year during which the parents continue to feed the fledgling. Fledging success ranges between 20 and 80% for the group. The birds usually return to their natal sites during adolescence from three years old and once breeding commences they generally return to the same nesting site.
Of the presently accepted 21 species of albatross, 12 breed in New Zealand and 6 additional taxa have been recorded as visitors/migrants to New Zealand's exclusive economic zone. This represents 83% of the world's albatross diversity occurring in New Zealand's exclusive economic zone, with 54% having establishing breeding colonies. Of the 12 species breeding in the region, 6 (ie, 50%) breed only in New Zealand. Taxonomically, the New Zealand breeding albatross fauna includes 3 of the 4 albatross genera, with members of the genus Diomedea (the great albatrosses), Thalassarche (the mollymawks), and Phoebetria (the sooty albatrosses).
Status
Of the six endemic species breeding in New Zealand, the Chatham albatross, Thalassarche eremita, is listed by IUCN as 'critically endangered' and the northern royal albatross, Diomedea sanfordi, as 'endangered'. The rest of the species are listed as 'vulnerable' (antipodean albatross, Diomedea antipodensis; southern royal albatross, D. epomophora; Campbell albatross, Thalassarche impavida; and Buller's albatross, T. bulleri).
Of the remaining six species that breed in New Zealand but have colonies established elsewhere, the black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophrys, and the Indian yellow-nosed albatross, T. carteri, are classified as 'endangered', the Salvin's albatross, T. salvini, and the grey-headed albatross, T. chrysostoma, are classified as 'vulnerable', whereas the light-mantled sooty albatross, Phoebetria palpebrata, and the shy albatross, T. cauta, are data deficient in terms of their threat status.
Key Locations
New Zealand species breed mainly on subantarctic islands and the smaller outer islets of the Chatham Islands. For example, the Chatham albatross breeds on one isolated rock stack (The Pyramid) in the Chatham Islands. Campbell Island supports six species of breeding albatrosses. The only mainland colony for any albatross is the small royal albatross group located on the Otago Peninsula on the southeast coast of the South Island.
Summary of Threats
Albatrosses are long-lived with a low level of productivity, producing a maximum of one chick per year, and for biennial breeders a maximum of one chick every two years once they start to breed. These life-history characteristics make albatross species particularly vulnerable to impacts on adults. The low reproductive rates and relatively long period before first reproduction has implications for population recovery.
Many of the species scavenge about fishing vessels during different parts of their life cycle inside and outside the New Zealand exclusive economic zone. There is a direct risk for some species prone to capture on longline hooks, and other species are prone to injuries such as wing damage during collision with trawl warps.
Land-based threats to breeding birds, fledglings, and eggs can include predation by introduced predators, such as stoats, cats, dogs and pigs. Disturbance by feral sheep and other grazers that are attracted to lush vegetation near colonies can cause disturbance and breeding failure (now eliminated except for pigs in the Auckland Islands). Natural predators, such as skuas, can take unattended eggs and small chicks.
Other threats may include the impacts of climate change on food resources, and the accumulation of toxins (the latter not recorded at significant levels in New Zealand populations).
Typical Habitats
Foraging is pelagic, however some specialised shelf-feeders concentrate around breeding islands or adjacent submarine banks and volcanic chains. In coastal waters, species have been known to concentrate near upwelling areas or oceanic fronts.
Nesting habitats range from rock-covered ledges and terraces, slopes, and hills, to the summits of rocky islets. Some colonies, such as those in the subantarctic islands, can occur in dense vegetation, including tussock, succulents, and trees.
State of Information
Information on albatrosses is generally good in terms of estimating population size and aspects of their life history, including reproductive cycles and behaviour. For many species there is a lack of information on diet, and the movements and dispersal of adults, non-breeding birds, and fledglings is largely unknown.
Significance for Maori
In the Maori language, albatrosses are generally referred to as toroa, and this encompasses all the different species including mollymawks. The albatrosses were highly prized for their white feathers, and the Maori people often went to great lengths to obtain these treasures. Usually, this required expeditions which ventured far out to sea, trolling with a hook and line. A catch of one bird over many days' hunting was considered an ample reward.
The soft white feathers of the albatross breast were the most sought after, and the downy skin of the breast was cut into pieces and dried into cylindrical shapes. These ornaments were called pohoi, and were worn in the ear or hair, while the feathers from under the wings were worn on the head or adorned waka taua (war canoes). These ornaments were reserved for people of rank and only the largest, intricately carved vessels were decorated.
Albatross bones were also highly prized. The bones of wings and legs were fashioned into flutes, neck and ear pendants, and shorter pieces of bone were strung into necklaces (poro toroa). Segments of albatross bone were also shaped and carved to form the barb of fish-hooks and other fishing implements.
For the Maori people, the power and beauty of the albatross were inseparably linked, and their feathers and bone gave access to these qualities. Thus, many songs and sayings of praise were used to liken an honoured person to the toroa or to its plumage.
Key References
Imber, M J. 1992. Cephalopods eaten by wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans L.) breeding at six circumpolar localities. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 22: 243-263.
Imber, M J. 1999. Diet and feeding ecology of the royal albatross Diomedea epomophora - King of the shelf break and inner slope. Emu 99: 200-211.
Marchant, S. and Higgins, P J. 1991. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds. Vol. 1: Part B. Ratites to Ducks. Oxford University Press. 1408.
Orbel, M. 2003. Birds of Aotearoa. A Natural and Cultural History. Reed Publishing. 198pp.
Stahl, J C, Bartle, J A, Cheshire, N G, Petyt, C and P M Sagar. 1998. Distribution and movements of Buller's albatross (Diomedea bulleri) in Australasian seas. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 25: 109-137.
Taylor, G A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part A. Threatened Seabirds. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 16. Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. 233pp.
Taylor, G A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Part B. Non-threatened Species. Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 17. Department of Conservation, Wellington New Zealand. 435pp.
Table 2: Albatrosses (Family Diomedeidae) in New Zealand
| Taxon | Common name | Breeding Species | Endemic Species |
|---|---|---|---|
| Diomedea antipodensis | Antipodean albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Diomedea epomophora | Southern royal albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Diomedea sanfordi | Northern royal albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Thalassarche bulleri | Buller's albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Thalassarche eremita | Chatham albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Thalassarche impavida | Campbell albatross | 1 | 1 |
| Thalassarche cauta | White-capped albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Thalassarche chrysostoma | Grey-headed albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Thalassarche melanophrys | Black-browed albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Thalassarche salvini | Salvin's albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Phoebetria palpebrata | Light-mantled sooty albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Thalassarche carteri | Indian yellow-nosed albatross | 1 | 0 |
| Total | 12 | 6 |
Figure 4: Northern royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi annual distribution.
Figure 5: Northern royal albatross Diomedea sanfordi breeding.
Figure 6: Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma annual distribution.
Figure 7: Grey-headed albatross Thalassarche chrysostoma breeding.
Figure 8: Chatham albatross Thalassarche eremita annual distribution.
Figure 9: Chatham albatross Thalassarche eremita breeding.
Figure 10: Light-mantled sooty albatross Phoebetria palpebrata annual distribution.
Figure 11: Light-mantled sooty albatross Phoebetria palpebrata breeding.